From 1860 to 1890 the United States military engaged in war after war with the indigenous peoples of the West. Although numerous treaties recognized the rights of individual tribes, the U.S. government often did nothing to stop settlers from expanding into Indian territory. Some Indians fled, and others attempted to coexist with the newcomers, but many fought against the loss of homelands and traditional ways of life. Superior numbers, organization, and technology benefited the United States, yet Indian resistance was often skillful, heroic, and tenacious. This informative work serves as a guide to the battlefields and fits the episodes into the larger historical drama. John D. McDermott, who has spent a lifetime researching the events, discusses the equipment, organization, and lifeways of the combatants. He explains circumstances underlying the encounters and analyzes the significance of events. This detailed guide also leads students, tourists, and history buffs to monuments, parks, museums, and other sources of information about the wars. John D. McDermott is a retired historian and administrator for the National Park Service and the Council on Historic Preservation. He is the author of Dangerous Duty: A Study of Outposts Protecting the Oregon Trail in the South Pass Area of Wyoming and Forlorn Hope: The Battle of White Bird Canyon and the Beginning of the Nez Perce War. Table of Contents Notes to Contributors Preface List of Abbreviations Part 1. The Context 1. Causes and Limiting Factors Differing Ideas of land Use Treaties The Indian Ring Manifest Destiny & Nationalism Underestimating the Adversary Distrust of a Large Standing Army Division of Authority Immigration Policy Railroads 2. Opponents Indians of the West The Plains The Great Basin The Plateau The Northwest Coast California The Southwest The Army Artillery High Command Regimental Organization Company Officers Noncommissioned Staff Enlisted Men The Strength of the Army Material Culture Indians of the West Plains Indian Clothing Other Tribes Bow & Arrow Firearms The Army Clothing Firearms & Accoutrements Artillery Medical Needs Women Civilian men Warfare Indians of the West Code of Courage Scalping & Mutilation The Warrior Leadership Indian Strategy Living off the Land Tactics & Methods Defense Strengths & Weaknesses The Army The Problem of Distance Climate Training Horses Tactics & Methods Strengths & Weaknesses Indian & Army Life Indians of the West Women Habitations Camps Food Buffalo Dance & Music Religion Death & Mourning The Army The Land Shelter Enlisted Men Officers Army Life in general Health Women of the post Civilians The Indian Wars in Literature & the Arts Early Literature Poets Novelists Historians & Anthropologists Modern Literature Historians Western Novelists Indian Novels Indian Writers The Arts Western Films Indians in Films Western Painters Indian Art Conclusions Part 2. Places to Visit Historic Sites & Museums California & the Northwest California Historic Sites Lava Beds National Monument Museums Gene Autry Western Heritage Museum Southwest Museum Oregon Historic Sites Fort Dalles Washington Historic Sites Fort Simcoe State Park Heritage Site Vancouver Barracks Fort Walla Walla The Great Basin Nevada Historic Sites Fort Churchill State Historic Park Fort McDermit Utah Historic Sites Fort Douglas The Plateau Idaho Battlefields Clearwater Battlefield White Bird Battlefield Museums Museum of Nez Perce Culture The Southwest Arizona Historic Sites Fort Verde State Historic Park Fort Apache Fort Bowie National Historic Park Battlefields Cibecue Creek Battlefields Museums The Heard Museum Indian Heritage Sites Cochise Stronghold Hubbell Trading Post National Historic Site New Mexico Historic Sites Fort Stanton Fort Union National Monument Texas Historic Sites Fort Concho Fort Davis National Historic Site Fort McKavett State Historic Site Battlefields Adobe Walls Palo Duro Canyon Battlefield State Park The Southern Plains Colorado Historic Sites Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site Fort Garland Battlefields Beecher's Island Battlefield Milk Creek Battlefield Sand Creek Battlefield Summit Springs Battlefield Museums Colorado History Museum Koshare Indian Kiva Museum Ute Indian Museum Kansas Historic Sites Fort Hays Fort Larned National Historic Site Fort Leavenworth Fort Riley Fort Scott National Historic Site Battlefields Punished Woman Battlefield Sappa Creek Battlefield Indian Heritage Sites Quannah Parker Starr House Missouri Historic Sites Jefferson Barracks Historical Park, St. Louis Museums Jefferson National Expansion Memorial National Historic Site Museum Oklahoma Historic Sites Fort Gibson Fort Reno Fort Sill Fort Supply Battlefields Washita Battlefield Museums Gilcrease Museum Kiowa Tribal Museum Southern Plains Indian Museum