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There are many reasons to be curious about the way people learn, and the past several decades have seen an explosion of research that has important implications for individual learning, schooling, workforce training, and policy.

In 2000, How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition was published and its influence has been wide and deep. The report summarized insights on the nature of learning in school-aged children; described principles for the design of effective learning environments; and provided examples of how that could be implemented in the classroom.

Since then, researchers have continued to investigate the nature of learning and have generated new findings related to the neurological processes involved in learning, individual and cultural variability related to learning, and educational technologies. In addition to expanding scientific understanding of the mechanisms of learning and how the brain adapts throughout the lifespan, there have been important discoveries about influences on learning, particularly sociocultural factors and the structure of learning environments.

How People Learn II: Learners, Contexts, and Cultures provides a much-needed update incorporating insights gained from this research over the past decade. The book expands on the foundation laid out in the 2000 report and takes an in-depth look at the constellation of influences that affect individual learning. How People Learn II will become an indispensable resource to understand learning throughout the lifespan for educators of students and adults.

The National Academy of Sciences was established in 1863 by an Act of Congress,

signed by President Lincoln, as a private, nongovernmental institution to advise

the nation on issues related to science and technology. Members are elected

by their peers for outstanding contributions to research. Dr. Marcia McNutt is

president.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964 under the charter

of the National Academy of Sciences to bring the practices of engineering to advising

the nation. Members are elected by their peers for extraordinary contributions

to engineering. Dr. C. D. Mote, Jr., is president.

The National Academy of Medicine (formerly the Institute of Medicine) was

established in 1970 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences to

advise the nation on medical and health issues. Members are elected by their

peers for distinguished contributions to medicine and health. Dr. Victor J. Dzau

is president.

The three Academies work together as the National Academies of Sciences,

Engineering, and Medicine to provide independent, objective analysis and advice

to the nation and conduct other activities to solve complex problems and

inform public policy decisions. The National Academies also encourage education

and research, recognize outstanding contributions to knowledge, and increase

public understanding in matters of science, engineering, and medicine.

Learn more about the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

at www.nationalacademies.org.

Summary 1
1 Introduction 11
Charge to the Committee, 12
Contributions of HPL I, 14
Interpreting the Charge, 16
Gathering Evidence to Address the Charge, 16
Treatment of Evidence, 18
Guide to This Report, 20
2 Context and Culture 21
The Cultural Nature of Learning, 22
Defining Culture, 22
The Role of Culture in Learning and Development, 24
Learning as Social Activity, 26
The Dynamic Interaction of Culture, Biology, and Context, 27
Social and Emotional Influences, 29
Physical Influences, 30
Conclusion, 33
3 Types of Learning and the Developing Brain 35
Types of Learning, 35
Three Learning Scenarios, 36
Basic Types of Learning, 38
Integrating Types of Learning, 55
Learning and the Brain, 55
Prenatal and Lifelong Brain Development and Maturation, 56
Brain Adaptation in Response to Learning, 59
Evidence of Learning-Related Changes in the Brain Throughout
the Life Span, 62
Conclusions, 67
4 Processes That Support Learning 69
Orchestrating Learning, 70
Executive Function, 70
Self-Regulation of Learning, 72
Memory, 74
Reconstructing Memories, 74
Working and Long-Term Memory, 77
Memory for Episodes of Learning, 79
Conclusions, 83
5 Knowledge and Reasoning 85
Building a Knowledge Base, 86
Knowledge and Expertise, 90
Benefits of Expertise, 90
Bias as a Natural Side Effect of Knowledge, 91
Knowledge Integration and Reasoning, 93
Inferential Reasoning, 93
Age-Related Changes in Knowledge and Reasoning, 94
Effects of Culture on Reasoning, 96
Strategies to Support Learning, 97
Strategies for Knowledge Retention, 98
Strategies for Understanding and Integration, 101
Conclusions, 106
6 Motivation to Learn 109
Theoretical Perspectives, 110
Learners' Beliefs and Values, 111
Self-Efficacy, 111
Values, 113
Interest, 113
Intrinsic Motivation, 115
External Rewards, 115
Effects of Choice, 117
The Importance of Goals, 117
Types of Goals, 118
Influence of Teachers on Learners' Goals, 120
Learning Goals and Other Goals, 121
Future Identities and Long-Term Persistence, 122
Social and Cultural Influences on Motivation, 124
Cross-Cultural Differences in Learners' Self-Construals, 124
Social Identity and Motivation Processes, 126
Stereotype Threat, 127
Interventions to Improve Motivation, 131
Conclusions, 132
7 Implications for Learning in School 135
Culture and Learning in School, 136
School and Classroom Contexts, 137
Shifting from "Deficit" to "Asset" Models, 140
Discipline-Specific Learning, 143
Mathematics, 144
Science, 145
History, 146
Engaging and Empowering Learners, 148
Self-Regulated Learning, 149
Instructional Approaches for Engaging the Learner, 151
Assessing Learning, 153
Providing Feedback to Learners, 154
Connecting Assessment to Evidence about How Students Learn, 155
Conclusions, 160
8 Digital Technology 163
Aligning Technologies with Learning Goals, 164
Affordances of Learning Technologies, 164
Learning Through Repetition, 166
Deeper Learning with Models, 167
Collaborative and Cooperative Learning, 169
Technology-Supported Self-Regulated Learning, 170
Technologies that Stimulate Active Learning, 172
Learning Through Game Play, 172
Leveraging Stories and Favorite Characters, 173
Empowering Learners as Producers and Creators, 175
Making, 176
Embodied Cognition, 177
Conversational Agents, 179
Technologies for Instruction, 180
Linking Formal and Informal Learning, 180
Orchestrating Instruction, 181
Writing Instruction, 183
Opportunities and Challenges, 184
Digital Dashboards, 184
Distance Learning, 185
Mobile Personal Devices, 186
Problematic Features of Technology, 187
Universal Design, 189
Technology for Learning in Later Life, 190
The Digital Divide, 193
A Systematic Approach to Implementation, 194
Conclusions, 196
9 Learning Across the Life Span 197
Changes That Occur with Age, 198
Reasoning and Knowledge, 198
Motivation for Learning, 199
Learning Activities and Environments, 200
Cognitive Abilities, 202
Learning Disabilities, 203
Causes of Learning Disabilities, 204
Reading Disabilities, 205
Mathematics Disabilities, 206
Learning Disabilities in Adults, 207
Adult Literacy, 208
Interventions, 209
Postsecondary Educational Experiences, 211
Workforce Training, 213
Determining Whether People Learn in the Workplace, 214
Training Transfer, 215
Autonomous Workplace Learning, 216
Self-Regulated Learning in the Workplace, 219
The Importance of Active Engagement, 220
Fostering Lifelong Learning, 221
Conclusions, 223
10 Research Agenda 225
The Dynamic Nature of Learning, 225
Research Agenda, 227
References 233
Appendixes
A History of the How People Learn Studies and Their Use 295
B List of Relevant Reports Published by the National Academies Press 299
C Study Populations in Research on Learning 315
D Committee and Staff Biographies 319
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